The transformation of interpersonal relationships in the digital age: challenges for adolescents’ emotional development
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References
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Agarwal, S., R. Kumar, and P. Singh. 2024. “Social Media Use and Self-esteem in Adolescents.” Journal of Adolescent Health 74(2):215–223.
-
American Psychological Association. 2023. Health Advisory on Social Media Use in Adolescence. APA.
-
Anderson, M., and J. Jiang. 2018. Teens, Social Media & Technology 2018. Pew Research Center.
-
Bauman, S. 2010. “Cyberbullying in a Rural Intermediate School: An Exploratory Study.” Journal of Early Adolescence 30(6):803–833.
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Baumeister, R. F., and M. R. Leary. 1995. “The Need to Belong: Desire for Interpersonal Attachments as a Fundamental Human Motivation.” Psychological Bulletin 117(3):497–529.
-
Burgoon, J. K., L. K. Guerrero, and K. Floyd. 2016. Nonverbal Communication. Routledge.
-
Cacioppo, J. T., and W. Patrick. 2008. Loneliness: Human Nature and the Need for Social Connection. Norton.
-
Coyne, S. M., A. A. Rogers, J. D. Zurcher, L. Stockdale, and M. Booth. 2020. “Does Time Spent Using Social Media Impact Mental Health?: An Eight-year Longitudinal Study.” Journal of Youth and Adolescence 49:235–249.
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Derks, D., A. H. Fischer, and A. E. R. Bos. 2008. “The Role of Emotion in Computer-mediated Communication.” Computers in Human Behavior 24(3):766–785.
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Erikson, E. H. 1968. Identity: Youth and Crisis. Norton.
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Fardouly, J., P. C. Diedrichs, L. R. Vartanian, and E. Halliwell. 2015. “Social Comparisons on Social Media: The Impact on Body Image and Mood.” Body Image 13:38–45.
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Frison, E., and S. Eggermont. 2016. “Toward an Integrated and Differential Approach to the Relationships Between Social Media Use, Loneliness, and Depression.” Journal of Adolescence 48:55–66.
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Hawkley, L. C., and J. T. Cacioppo. 2010. “Loneliness Matters: A Theoretical and Empirical Review.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 40(2):218–227.
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Holt-Lunstad, J., T. B. Smith, M. Baker, T. Harris, and D. Stephenson. 2015. “Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality.” Perspectives on Psychological Science 10(2):227–237.
-
Huang, C. 2017. “Time Spent on Social Network Sites and Psychological Well-being: A Meta-analysis.” Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking 20(6):346–354.
-
Kiesler, S., J. Siegel, and T. W. McGuire. 2014. “Social Psychological Aspects of Computer-mediated Communication.” American Psychologist 69(6):733–745.
-
Konrath, S. H. 2015. The Empathy Paradox: Increasing Disconnection in the Age of Increasing Connection. The Greater Good Science Center.
-
Konrath, S. H., E. H. O’Brien, and C. Hsing. 2011. “Changes in Dispositional Empathy in American College Students Over Time: A Meta-analysis.” Personality and Social Psychology Review 15(2):180–198.
-
Kowalski, R. M., G. W. Giumetti, A. N. Schroeder, and M. R. Lattanner. 2014. “Bullying in the Digital Age.” Psychological Bulletin 140(4):1073–1137.
-
Lapidot-Lefler, N., and A. Barak. 2012. “Effects of Anonymity on Aggression in Online Communication.” Computers in Human Behavior 28(2):434–443.
-
Liu, X., Y. Zhang, and W. Chen. 2025. “Digital Communication and Adolescent Mental Health.” Computers in Human Behavior 146:107862.
-
Loades, M. E., et al. 2020. “Rapid Systematic Review: The Impact of Social Isolation and Loneliness on the Mental Health of Children and Adolescents.” Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 59(11):1218–1239.
-
Luijten, C. C., A. J. van Rooij, and R. C. Engels. 2022. “Online Peer Relationships and Adolescent Well-being.” Journal of Youth and Adolescence 51:563–578.
-
Majeed, S., et al. 2024. “Problematic Social Media Use and Emotional Distress Among Adolescents.” Frontiers in Psychology 15:1298765.
-
Marwick, A. 2013. Status Update: Celebrity, Publicity, and Branding in the Social Media Age. Yale University Press.
-
Miller, D. 2017. Social Media in an English Village. UCL Press.
-
National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2023. Social Media and Adolescent Health. National Academies Press.
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Nesi, J., S. Choukas-Bradley, and M. J. Prinstein. 2018. “The Role of Social Media in Adolescent Peer Relationships.” Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review 21(4):469–482.
-
Nixon, C. L. 2014. “Current Perspectives: The Impact of Cyberbullying on Adolescent Health.” Adolescent Health, Medicine and Therapeutics 5:143–158.
-
Odgers, C. L., and M. R. Jensen. 2020. “Adolescent Mental Health in the Digital Age.” Nature Human Behaviour 4(4):346–357.
-
Patchin, J. W., and S. Hinduja. 2015. Bullying Beyond the Schoolyard: Preventing and Responding to Cyberbullying. Sage.
-
Pew Research Center. 2015, 2022, 2024. Teens, Social Media and Technology. Pew Research Center.
-
Piccerillo, L., and S. Digennaro. 2024. “Adolescent Social Media Use and Emotional Intelligence: A Systematic Review.” Adolescent Research Review. Advance online publication.
-
Popat, A., and C. Tarrant. 2023. “Exploring Adolescents’ Perspectives on Social Media and Mental Health: A Qualitative Literature Review.” Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry 28(3):323–337.
-
Primack, B. A., et al. 2017. “Social Media Use and Perceived Social Isolation Among Young Adults.” American Journal of Preventive Medicine 53(1):1–8.
-
Przybylski, A. K., and N. Weinstein. 2013. “Can You Connect with Me Now?” Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 30(3):237–246.
-
Reich, S. M., K. Subrahmanyam, and G. Espinoza. 2012. “Friending, IMing, and Hanging Out Face-to-face.” Developmental Psychology 48(2):356–368.
-
Servidio, R., P. Soraci, M. D. Griffiths, et al. 2024. “Fear of Missing Out and Problematic Social Media Use.” Addictive Behaviors Reports 19:100536.
-
Shaari, A., and N. Ahmad. 2024. “FOMO, Cyberbullying and Social Anxiety Among Adolescents.” Journal of Mental Health 33(2):234–246.
-
Tiggemann, M., and A. Slater. 2014. “NetGirls: The Internet, Facebook, and Body Image Concern in Adolescent Girls.” International Journal of Eating Disorders 47(6):630–643.
-
Turkle, S. 2011. Alone Together. Basic Books.
-
Turkle, S. 2015. Reclaiming Conversation. Penguin Press.
-
Uhls, Y. T., et al. 2014. “Five Days at Outdoor Education Camp Without Screens Improves Preteen Skills.” Computers in Human Behavior 39:387–392.
-
Valkenburg, P. M., and J. Peter. 2007. “Online Communication and Adolescent Well-being.” Journal of Adolescent Psychology 30(2):267–287.
-
Valkenburg, P. M., and J. Peter. 2011. “Online Communication Among Adolescents: An Integrated Model.” Journal of Adolescent Health 48(2):121–127.
-
Valkenburg, P. M., and J. T. Piotrowski. 2017. Plugged In: How Media Attract and Affect Youth. Yale University Press.
-
Vossen, H. G. M., and P. M. Valkenburg. 2016. “Do Social Media Foster or Curtail Adolescents’ Empathy?” Computers in Human Behavior 63:118–124.
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World Metrics. 2024. Gen Z and Social Media Usage Statistics. World Metrics. Xhensila Xhelili
References
Agarwal, S., R. Kumar, and P. Singh. 2024. “Social Media Use and Self-esteem in Adolescents.” Journal of Adolescent Health 74(2):215–223.
American Psychological Association. 2023. Health Advisory on Social Media Use in Adolescence. APA.
Anderson, M., and J. Jiang. 2018. Teens, Social Media & Technology 2018. Pew Research Center.
Bauman, S. 2010. “Cyberbullying in a Rural Intermediate School: An Exploratory Study.” Journal of Early Adolescence 30(6):803–833.
Baumeister, R. F., and M. R. Leary. 1995. “The Need to Belong: Desire for Interpersonal Attachments as a Fundamental Human Motivation.” Psychological Bulletin 117(3):497–529.
Burgoon, J. K., L. K. Guerrero, and K. Floyd. 2016. Nonverbal Communication. Routledge.
Cacioppo, J. T., and W. Patrick. 2008. Loneliness: Human Nature and the Need for Social Connection. Norton.
Coyne, S. M., A. A. Rogers, J. D. Zurcher, L. Stockdale, and M. Booth. 2020. “Does Time Spent Using Social Media Impact Mental Health?: An Eight-year Longitudinal Study.” Journal of Youth and Adolescence 49:235–249.
Derks, D., A. H. Fischer, and A. E. R. Bos. 2008. “The Role of Emotion in Computer-mediated Communication.” Computers in Human Behavior 24(3):766–785.
Erikson, E. H. 1968. Identity: Youth and Crisis. Norton.
Fardouly, J., P. C. Diedrichs, L. R. Vartanian, and E. Halliwell. 2015. “Social Comparisons on Social Media: The Impact on Body Image and Mood.” Body Image 13:38–45.
Frison, E., and S. Eggermont. 2016. “Toward an Integrated and Differential Approach to the Relationships Between Social Media Use, Loneliness, and Depression.” Journal of Adolescence 48:55–66.
Hawkley, L. C., and J. T. Cacioppo. 2010. “Loneliness Matters: A Theoretical and Empirical Review.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 40(2):218–227.
Holt-Lunstad, J., T. B. Smith, M. Baker, T. Harris, and D. Stephenson. 2015. “Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality.” Perspectives on Psychological Science 10(2):227–237.
Huang, C. 2017. “Time Spent on Social Network Sites and Psychological Well-being: A Meta-analysis.” Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking 20(6):346–354.
Kiesler, S., J. Siegel, and T. W. McGuire. 2014. “Social Psychological Aspects of Computer-mediated Communication.” American Psychologist 69(6):733–745.
Konrath, S. H. 2015. The Empathy Paradox: Increasing Disconnection in the Age of Increasing Connection. The Greater Good Science Center.
Konrath, S. H., E. H. O’Brien, and C. Hsing. 2011. “Changes in Dispositional Empathy in American College Students Over Time: A Meta-analysis.” Personality and Social Psychology Review 15(2):180–198.
Kowalski, R. M., G. W. Giumetti, A. N. Schroeder, and M. R. Lattanner. 2014. “Bullying in the Digital Age.” Psychological Bulletin 140(4):1073–1137.
Lapidot-Lefler, N., and A. Barak. 2012. “Effects of Anonymity on Aggression in Online Communication.” Computers in Human Behavior 28(2):434–443.
Liu, X., Y. Zhang, and W. Chen. 2025. “Digital Communication and Adolescent Mental Health.” Computers in Human Behavior 146:107862.
Loades, M. E., et al. 2020. “Rapid Systematic Review: The Impact of Social Isolation and Loneliness on the Mental Health of Children and Adolescents.” Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 59(11):1218–1239.
Luijten, C. C., A. J. van Rooij, and R. C. Engels. 2022. “Online Peer Relationships and Adolescent Well-being.” Journal of Youth and Adolescence 51:563–578.
Majeed, S., et al. 2024. “Problematic Social Media Use and Emotional Distress Among Adolescents.” Frontiers in Psychology 15:1298765.
Marwick, A. 2013. Status Update: Celebrity, Publicity, and Branding in the Social Media Age. Yale University Press.
Miller, D. 2017. Social Media in an English Village. UCL Press.
National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2023. Social Media and Adolescent Health. National Academies Press.
Nesi, J., S. Choukas-Bradley, and M. J. Prinstein. 2018. “The Role of Social Media in Adolescent Peer Relationships.” Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review 21(4):469–482.
Nixon, C. L. 2014. “Current Perspectives: The Impact of Cyberbullying on Adolescent Health.” Adolescent Health, Medicine and Therapeutics 5:143–158.
Odgers, C. L., and M. R. Jensen. 2020. “Adolescent Mental Health in the Digital Age.” Nature Human Behaviour 4(4):346–357.
Patchin, J. W., and S. Hinduja. 2015. Bullying Beyond the Schoolyard: Preventing and Responding to Cyberbullying. Sage.
Pew Research Center. 2015, 2022, 2024. Teens, Social Media and Technology. Pew Research Center.
Piccerillo, L., and S. Digennaro. 2024. “Adolescent Social Media Use and Emotional Intelligence: A Systematic Review.” Adolescent Research Review. Advance online publication.
Popat, A., and C. Tarrant. 2023. “Exploring Adolescents’ Perspectives on Social Media and Mental Health: A Qualitative Literature Review.” Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry 28(3):323–337.
Primack, B. A., et al. 2017. “Social Media Use and Perceived Social Isolation Among Young Adults.” American Journal of Preventive Medicine 53(1):1–8.
Przybylski, A. K., and N. Weinstein. 2013. “Can You Connect with Me Now?” Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 30(3):237–246.
Reich, S. M., K. Subrahmanyam, and G. Espinoza. 2012. “Friending, IMing, and Hanging Out Face-to-face.” Developmental Psychology 48(2):356–368.
Servidio, R., P. Soraci, M. D. Griffiths, et al. 2024. “Fear of Missing Out and Problematic Social Media Use.” Addictive Behaviors Reports 19:100536.
Shaari, A., and N. Ahmad. 2024. “FOMO, Cyberbullying and Social Anxiety Among Adolescents.” Journal of Mental Health 33(2):234–246.
Tiggemann, M., and A. Slater. 2014. “NetGirls: The Internet, Facebook, and Body Image Concern in Adolescent Girls.” International Journal of Eating Disorders 47(6):630–643.
Turkle, S. 2011. Alone Together. Basic Books.
Turkle, S. 2015. Reclaiming Conversation. Penguin Press.
Uhls, Y. T., et al. 2014. “Five Days at Outdoor Education Camp Without Screens Improves Preteen Skills.” Computers in Human Behavior 39:387–392.
Valkenburg, P. M., and J. Peter. 2007. “Online Communication and Adolescent Well-being.” Journal of Adolescent Psychology 30(2):267–287.
Valkenburg, P. M., and J. Peter. 2011. “Online Communication Among Adolescents: An Integrated Model.” Journal of Adolescent Health 48(2):121–127.
Valkenburg, P. M., and J. T. Piotrowski. 2017. Plugged In: How Media Attract and Affect Youth. Yale University Press.
Vossen, H. G. M., and P. M. Valkenburg. 2016. “Do Social Media Foster or Curtail Adolescents’ Empathy?” Computers in Human Behavior 63:118–124.
World Metrics. 2024. Gen Z and Social Media Usage Statistics. World Metrics. Xhensila Xhelili



